Glossary
a
Abstract Noun
Active
active voice; the standard voice for most English sentences; active sentences follow subject–verb–object word order
Compare: Passive
The artist paints portraits.
Adjective
describing word; modifies a noun or pronoun to give us more information about its characteristics and tell us what something is like
young, old, good, quick
A tall modern building with large windows.
Adverb
describes a verb, adjective or another adverb; adverbs give information about place, time, manner, degree or frequency
there, early, quickly, rather, sometimes
Sometimes I get up early, but it’s really hard when I’m tired.
Affirmative
Article
used before a noun, the definite article is the, the indefinite article is a or an
the table
a flower
an apple
Definite Article
the; refers to a noun which is already known, identifiable or specific.
The woman I met last week is very nice.
Indefinite Article
a/an; used with a noun that is unspecific, not yet determined or general; use an when the noun begins with a vowel sound.
We need to buy a new table.
Do you have an umbrella?
Aspect
tenses indicate past or present while the tense aspect shows the action’s relation to time and therefore its nature; regular, completed, habitual, continuing, partially completed, etc.
See also: Tense
I had eaten my sandwich.
→ past tense; perfect aspect = completed action
I was eating my sandwich.
→ past tense; progressive aspect = incomplete/ongoing action
Perfect
tense-aspect that shows that an action is completed, formed with have + past participle.
See also: Present Perfect Simple, Past Perfect Simple, Future Perfect
I have been to Greece.
They had eaten too much.
They will have arrived at the hotel by now.
Perfect Progressive
also: perfect continuous; combination of the perfect and progressive tense-aspects; shows that an action started in the past and is/was/will be in progress at a specific moment in time; formed with have been + present participle (-ing form).
See also: Present Perfect Progressive, Past Perfect Progressive, Future Perfect Progressive
She has been listening to music all day.
They had been driving for an hour.
I will have been working for 2 hours.
Progressive
also: continuous; tense-aspect that shows that an action is in progress or temporary, formed with be + present participle (-ing form).
See also: Present Progressive, Past Progressive, Future Progressive
I am washing the dishes.
I was listening to music.
She will be driving home.
Auxiliary
b
Base Form
Basic Adjective/Adverb
base adjective/adverb; the standard form of an adjective or adverb; used in comparisons with as … as and is the starting point for the comparative forms
Compare: Comparative, Superlative
tall – taller – the tallest
Mark is not as tall as Paul.
c
Clause
part of a sentence, usually containing a subject and verb
See also: If-clause, Main Clause, Subordinate Clause, Relative Clause
I am 15 and you are 27.
Contact Clause
a defining relative clause in which the relative pronoun is left out
Compare: Relative Clause
This is the computer [that] I bought last week.
Defining Relative Clause
also: restrictive relative clause; a relative clause that contains information that is essential for identifying who or what we are talking about; not set off by commas and cannot be omitted
Compare: Non-defining Relative Clause
The man who lives next door.
Dependent Clause
also: subordinate clause; a clause introduced by a subordinating conjunction (because, as, since); its meaning is incomplete without a main clause
Compare: Main Clause
I am happy because I am on holiday.
If-clause
also: conditional clause, conditional sentence, if sentence; a subordinate clause that expresses a condition, usually introduced by if/when
See also: Dependent Clause
If it rains, we’ll stay at home.
Main Clause
also: independent clause; a clause that can stand alone as a sentence, formed with a subject and finite verb
Compare: Dependent Clause
I am happy because I am on holiday.
Non-defining Relative Clause
also: non-identifying relative clause, non-restrictive relative clause; a relative clause that gives additional, non-essential information; can be omitted without altering the meaning of the sentence; always set off by commas
Compare: Defining Relative Clause
James Smith, who lives next door, is moving to Manchester next month.
Participle Clause
a subordinate clause that uses a past, present or perfect participle
See also: Past Participle, Present Participle, Perfect Participle
Running down the stairs, Cinderella lost her shoe.
Relative Clause
a dependent clause that gives additional or necessary information about an element in the preceding clause; introduced by a relative pronoun such as who, which or that
See also: Relative Pronoun
I know the man who was talking to our teacher.
Closed Question
Collective Noun
Common Noun
Comparative
form of an adjective or adverb used in comparisons with than and as; formed by adding -er or using the word more
Compare: Superlative
tall – taller – the tallest
polite – more polite – the most polite
little – less – the least
Complement
word or group of words that complete the predicate; the complement usually follows the verb
See also: Linking Verb
Peter and Julia are doctors.
The news made them very happy.
Compound Noun
Conditional Clause
Conjugated Verb
Conjugation
when we change the form of a verb to reflect person, number, voice, mood and tense
See also: Finite Verb
be → I am, you/we/they are, he/she/it is
Conjunction
word that links two words, phrases, clauses or sentences
and, but, if, or
Coordinating Conjunction
word that links two grammatically equal elements; these can be words, phrases, clauses or even entire sentences
and, but, for, nor, or, yet
I like flowers and you like chocolate.
Subordinating Conjunction
subordinator; word that connects a main clause with a subordinate clause; can express a condition, consequence, contradiction, reason, result or time
after, although, because, if, since, until, when
I am hungry because I haven’t eaten anything yet.
Consonant
a letter or sound that is not a vowel
Compare: Vowel
b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z
Continuous
Contraction
also: short form; a shortened combination of words often used in spoken English
I’m, you’re, he’s, don’t, can’t, isn’t, won’t
She’s not here today.
Count Noun
Countable Noun
d
Declarative
also: affirmative, positive; a statement or fact that is positive in the grammatical sense (i.e. not negated and not a question)
We are happy.
The weather is terrible today.
Defining Relative Clause
Definite Article
Demonstrative Pronoun
Dependent Clause
Determiner
word used before a noun to identify it more specifically or assign it a quantity
See also: Demonstrative Pronoun, Indefinite Pronoun, Indefinite Article, Possessive Pronoun, Quantifier
a/an
my/your/his/her/its/our/their
this/that/these/those
much/many/little/few
some/any
each/every/all
Direct Object
Direct Speech
the exact words a speaker has said, written in quotation marks, often used with reporting verbs (say, tell, reply)
Compare: Indirect Speech
He said, “I went there yesterday.”
e
Emphasis
f
Finite Verb
Formal Language
style of written and spoken English that is more complicated; includes complex sentences, the passive, technical vocabulary and no slang or short forms; usually used in academic and business contexts
Compare: Informal Language
While somewhat nervous, Laura is nonetheless looking forward to furthering her studies at a prestigious university on the coast.
Future Perfect
also: future perfect simple; tense that shows that an action will be completed by a certain time in the future, formed with will have + past participle
He will have finished work by ten.
Future Perfect Progressive
also: future perfect continuous; tense that indicates how long an action will have been in progress up to a specific future time, formed with will have been + present participle
In five minutes, we will have been walking for four hours without a break.
Future Progressive
also: future continuous; tense that expresses an action that will be in progress at a specific point in the future; formed with will be + present participle (-ing form)
This time tomorrow we will be doing our last ever exam.
Future Simple
name given to the future forms will + infinitive and going to + infinitive; used to express intentions, promises predictions and plans
I promise I will clean up later.
After university I’m going to take a gap year.
g
Genitive
Gerund
also: -ing form; a verb ending in -ing that functions like a noun, often used as the subject of a sentence or after certain prepositions, adjectives, nouns and verbs
Compare: Present Participle
Cycling is good for your health.
I look forward to hearing from you soon.
Group Word
h
Helping Verb
i
Identifying Relative Clause
If-clause
Imperative
when we use the infinitive of the verb without a subject to express orders, commands, advice, instructions and suggestions
Stop!
Be quiet, please.
Turn left at the corner.
Impersonal Passive
sentence where the reporting verb appears in the passive voice
It is said that he is mean.
He is said to be mean.
Indefinite Article
Indefinite Pronoun
Independent Clause
Indirect Object
Indirect Question
a question that is contained within a sentence or clause, not punctuated by a question mark
I don’t know where the station is.
Could you tell me when the last train leaves.
Indirect Speech
reported speech; repeating what another person has said using a reporting verb (say, tell); we often need to change the tense, pronouns, time and place references
Compare: Direct Speech
He said (that) he had been there the day before.
Infinitive
also: base form; the basic, unconjugated form of the verb; used with and without the preposition to
Compare: Finite Verb
(to) go, (to) sleep, (to) be
Inflection
Informal Language
style of English, mostly spoken, which includes contractions, simple vocabulary, shortened sentences and colloquial language
Compare: Formal Language
Laura’s a bit nervous. But she’s happy about starting uni.
Interrogative
Intransitive Verb
Irregular Verb
It-passive
l
Linking Verb
m
Main Clause
Main Verb
Mass Noun
Modal Verb
n
Negative
also: negation; when a sentence contains not to negate its meaning (i.e. a sentence that is not affirmative and not a question); we can also use words like nobody or nothing in negative sentences
Compare: , Question
The weather isn’t bad today.
I won’t be late.
Nobody came to the party.
Non-defining Relative Clause
Non-finite Verb
Non-identifying Relative Clause
Non-restrictive Relative Clause
Noun
also: common noun; a naming word that refers to a person, animal, concept, place, feeling, thing, etc.; always written lower case
See also: Pronoun
house, moon, air, people, idea
Abstract Noun
a noun that refers to a non-material object, i.e. an idea, quality or state
beauty, truth, safety, well-being
Collective Noun
also: group word; type of noun that refers to a group of people or things; when used as subjects many can take the singular or the plural
See also: Uncountable Noun
class, family, group, team
My family is/are visiting this week.
Compound Noun
noun made up of two or more words, can be written together as one word, as two separate words or joined with a hyphen
earring, cat food, ice-cream
Countable Noun
also: count noun; a noun that can be used in singular and plural, with the indefinite article (a/an) and with a number
Compare: Uncountable Noun
one apple, two apples
Can I have an apple?
Plural Noun
a noun that only has a plural form; often ends in -s
scissors, sunglasses, trousers, jeans
Proper Noun
noun that refers to a particular person, animal, place or thing, often a name and always written with a capital letter
the Queen of England, Michael, South Africa, the White House
Uncountable Noun
also: mass noun; a noun that is not used with an indefinite article (a/an), cannot be made plural, cannot be counted and therefore cannot be used with numbers
Compare: Countable Noun
information, milk, wood
Number
grammatical number refers to whether a noun, pronoun, determiner or verb is singular or plural
boy – boys
I – we
that – those
am – are
Plural
a word form that refers to more than one person or thing
The presents are for us.
Singular
word form that refers to just one person or thing
The present is for me.
o
Object
the person or thing affected (directly or indirectly) by the action of the main verb; usually the noun, pronoun or phrase that follows the verb
Compare: Subject
I helped my neighbour.
Direct Object
person or thing directly affected by a transitive main verb
I bought a guitar.
Sam is eating a watermelon.
Indirect Object
in a sentence with two objects, the indirect object receives the direct object; in our example, the apple is given and the boy receives it; indirect objects are often people and are introduced by to or for
I gave the boy an apple.
I gave an apple to the boy.
Object Pronoun
Open Question
p
Participle
non-finite form of a verb used as a noun or adjective or as part of a compound verb tense
They have gone to the supermarket.
The lesson was boring.
Past Participle
also: -ed form, third form of the verb; non-finite verb form used in certain compound tenses, the passive voice and as an adjective
That apple is half-eaten.
I’ve never eaten octopus.
All of the cupcakes were eaten.
Perfect Participle
participle form used to show that an action was completed prior to another action; formed with having + past participle
Having said that, he left.
Present Participle
also: -ing form; when we add -ing to the infinitive of the verb; used to form progressive tenses, adjectives and participle clauses
Compare: Gerund
She was sitting on the sofa.
The film was interesting.
Being honest, I’d rather stay home.
Participle Clause
Passive
passive voice; sentence that focuses on the recipient of the action (the object); the person or thing performing the action (the subject) is unknown, unimportant or obvious; formed with be + past participle
Compare: Active
My bike was stolen last week.
The house was sold last year.
Smoking is forbidden.
Past Perfect Progressive
past perfect continuous; past tense that expresses how long an action had been in progress up to another point in this past, formed with had been + present participle
They had been working for 10 hours when their shift ended.
Past Perfect Simple
pluperfect; past tense that expresses an action that took place before a second past action; formed with had + past participle
I had already left the house when you called.
Past Progressive
past continuous; past tense that expresses an action that was in progress at a specific time in the past, formed with was/were + present participle (-ing form)
Yesterday at 9 ’clock I was watching TV.
Perfect
Perfect
Perfect Progressive
Person
grammatical person means the first person (the speaker), the second person (the addressee) and the third person (a third party); can be singular or plural and is indicated by pronouns, verb conjugation and possessives
first person: I, my, mine — we, our, ours
second person: you, your, yours
third person: he, his, his — she, her, hers — it, its, its — they, their, theirs
Phrasal Verb
Phrase
two or more words that form a unit, but do not form a complete sentence
big brown dog
at the weekend
Pluperfect
Plural
Plural Noun
Positive
Possessive
possessive ’s, genitive; shows ownership, possession or belonging between two nouns or pronouns, formed by adding ’s to a noun or by using the preposition of
See also: Possessive Pronoun
the bike’s handlebars
the handlebars of the bike
Predicate
the part of the sentence that contains the verb(s) as well as information about the subject
We learn English.
The house is being built.
Prefix
a letter or letters placed at the beginning of a word to change its meaning or form a new word
Compare: Suffix
impossible, unhappy, rediscover
Preposition
a short word used to connect a noun or pronoun to other words
in, of, on, at, with, for, since …
We have been living in this house for almost five years.
Present
present tenses refer to things that are currently true and/or happening now
I am studying at the moment.
Carla studies at Oxford University.
Present Perfect Progressive
present perfect continuous; tense that expresses an action that started in the past and continues in the present; often used to show duration (how long); formed with have/has been + present participle
I have been working since 8 o'clock.
How long have you been living in Berlin?
Present Perfect Simple
tense that connects the past with the present; formed with have/has + past participle
I’ve already made dinner, we can eat soon.
I’ve tried scuba diving before.
Present Progressive
present continuous; tense that expresses an action that is currently in progress at the moment of speaking or a temporary action; also used for future arrangements; formed with am/is/are + present participle (-ing form)
Be quiet, I’m studying.
Rachel is living with her parents this summer.
I’m meeting Callum for coffee tomorrow.
Present Simple
Preterite
Progressive
Pronoun
modifies, refers to or replaces a noun
He thinks that she will help us.
Demonstrative Pronoun
demonstrative; specifies exactly which person or thing is being referred to, allows us to identify specific elements in a group
this, that, these, those
This isn’t my car, that’s my car over there.
Indefinite Pronoun
pronoun that does not refer to a specific person, place or thing
See also: Demonstrative Pronoun
something/anything/nothing/everything
someone/anyone/no one/everyone
I have nothing to wear for the party, I need something new.
Object Pronoun
replaces a noun that is the object of a sentence
Compare: Subject Pronoun
me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them
He gave me a watch.
Please help us.
Personal Pronoun
pronouns that replace a noun as the subject (I) or object (me)
I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they
me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them
Possessive Pronoun
possessive pronouns replace a noun and simultaneously indicate possession/ownership
See also: Determiner
mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs
This is my book. It's mine.
Reflexive Pronoun
pronoun used after a verb when the subject and object are the same
myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
Please, help yourself to snacks.
Relative Pronoun
pronoun that introduces a relative clause
see also: Relative Clause
who, which, that
Jenna is the girl who delivers newspapers.
This is the new table that we bought.
Subject Pronoun
replaces a noun that is the subject of the sentence
Compare: Object Pronoun
I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they
Helen is a teacher, she teaches maths.
Proper Noun
q
Quantifier
a determiner, pronoun or phrase used before a noun to indicate quantity or amount
See also: Determiner, Pronoun
some, many, little, few, a lot of etc.
Many people learn Spanish as a foreign language.
Question
interrogative; clause that aims to gather information; requires a response from the speaking partner; formed with auxiliary + subject + infinitive
Compare: Declarative, Negative
Do you live nearby?
Where do you live?
Wh-question
open question; question that asks for specific information and cannot be answered with yes or no; formed with a question word + auxiliary verb + subject + main verb
See also: Question Word
Where do you live?
Yes-no Question
closed question; question formed without a question word, can be answered with with yes or no
See also: Short Answer
Do you speak English?
Question Tag
a small question added to the end of a positive or negative statement, used to check understanding or agreement, preceded by a comma
You know each other, don’t you?
Katja doesn’t eat meat, does she?
Question Word
wh-words; used to form wh-questions, allow us to ask specifically about a time, place, reason, person, thing, manner, etc.
See also: Wh-question
who, what, when, where, why, which, how
Where do you live?
When did you arrive?
r
Reflexive Pronoun
Regular Verb
Relative Clause
Relative Pronoun
Reported Speech
Restrictive Relative Clauses
s
Sentence
starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, can be made up of one or more clauses, contains a verb and a subject
I am very happy about the news.
Short Answer
polite response to yes-no questions; formed with yes/no + subject + auxiliary
See also: Yes-no Question
Are you happy?
Yes, I am./No, I’m not.
Does he drink coffee?
Yes, he does./No, he doesn’t.
Signal Word
a word, often an adverb, that acts as a signal for a particular tense
I bought a new bike yesterday.
I have just tidied up my room.
Simple Past
preterite, past simple; the basic past tense; expresses actions that were completed in the past, often with specific time markers
We went to the cinema yesterday.
Tom didn’t pass his driving test last month.
Simple Present
present simple; the basic present tense; expresses regular actions and events that occur in the present as well as facts; also used for scheduled/timetabled future events
They get up early every day.
The rises in the east and sets in the west.
The train leaves at 7am tomorrow morning.
Singular
Stative Verb
Stress
emphasis; when more emphasis is placed on a particular syllable in a word or on a particular word in a sentence; every word in English with more than one syllable has a stress
pronunciation (third syllable is stressed)
controversy (first syllable is stressed)
Subject
the person or thing that performs the action of the main verb, or is connected to a description by a linking verb; normally placed at the beginning of a sentence
Compare: Object
The boy is reading a book to his sister.
His sister is bored.
Subject Pronoun
Subjunctive
special present tense form used in set expressions and that-clauses in formal English, more common in American English
Long live the Queen.
I wish I were rich.
It is essential that children be able to play.
Subordinate Clause
Subordinating Conjunction
Subordinator
Suffix
a letter or letters placed at the end of a word to change its meaning or form a new word
Compare: Prefix
hopeless, sweetness, without
Superlative
an adjective or adverb formed with the suffix -est or the word most, expresses the highest degree of a particular quality and usually introduced by the
Compare: Comparative
tall – taller – the tallest
polite – more polite – the most polite
little – less – the least
Syllable
singular unit of pronunciation; one unbroken sound usually made up of a vowel or vowel sound and surrounding consonants
cat (one syllable)
po-lite-ly (three syllables)
t
Tense
form of a verb that indicates whether an action takes place in the past, present or future; contains an aspect that indicates the action’s nature (simple, progressive, completed, etc.)
Compare: Aspect
He is speaking.
He spoke.
He will speak.
To-infinitive passive
Transitive Verb
u
Uncountable Noun
v
Verb
action word, doing word; word that expresses an action, experience or condition
learn, go, speak
I speak English.
Auxiliary
helping verb, auxiliary verb; the verbs have, be and do are auxiliaries when they are used together with a main verb to form compound tenses and the passive voice
See also: Main Verb, Modal Verb
I am working.
The students have left.
I don’t like cheese.
Finite Verb
a verb that has been conjugated to express tense, person and number
Compare: Infinitive
Clara is a doctor, she works at a busy hospital.
Intransitive Verb
verb that does not take a direct object
Compare: Transitive Verb
arrive, come, die, happen, live, rain etc.
Something has happened.
Irregular Verb
verb that does not follow regular conjugation patterns, especially in simple past and past participle forms
Compare: Regular Verb
go – went – gone
buy – bought – bought
cut – cut – cut
Linking Verb
copular verb; a verb that links a subject to a complement
be, become, seem, feel
You seem happy.
Main Verb
full verb; verb that carries the meaning of a clause; expresses an action, process or state of being
Compare: Auxiliary, Modal Verb
We have worked.
She is going to leave.
They can go home now.
Modal Verb
modal auxiliary; verb with only one form; alters the meaning of a main verb to express certainty, obligation, wish, ability etc.; usually followed by an infinitive
Compare: Main Verb, Auxiliary, Infinitive
I can swim.
He must go.
We should do that.
Non-finite Verb
non-conjugated verb that does not express tense, person or number, e.g. infinitive, present participle or past participle
Compare: Finite Verb
She is wearing a blue hat.
He went to the supermarket to buy bread.
Phrasal Verb
verb made up of a base verb and a particle; the meaning of the phrasal verb is different from the meaning of the base verb
look up, look for, look forward to
I’m looking forward to my holiday, but first I need to look for my passport.
Regular Verb
verb that follows a regular conjugation pattern, i.e. takes -ed in the simple past and past participle forms
Compare: Irregular Verb
work – worked – worked
Stative Verb
state verb; verb that describes a state or condition and not an action; not usually used in progressive tenses
agree, be, become, feel, realize, seem, think, understand
Transitive Verb
a verb that requires a direct object in order to make sense
Compare: Intransitive Verb
ask, buy, enjoy, get, like, take, use etc.
Johnny uses public transport.